QK 47 
.B515 
Copy 1 



mm 



HWiBK 



OF TEACHERS 



S OF BOTANY 




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Class Q jfiff - 

Book Jj<ns~ 

Copyright N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A HANDBOOK 



FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS 



TO ACCOMPANY 



BEEGEX'S FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 



BY 

JOSEPH Y. BERGEN 
n 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHEES 

f£&e gtljeiwemn press 

1901 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

MAR. 18 1901 

Copyright entry 

CLASS £LXXc. N», 

COPY B. 



r ) 






Copyright, 1901 
By JOSEPH Y. BERGEN 



ALL BIGHTS RESERVED 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 



TO ACCOMPANY 



BERGEN'S FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 



This book is intended for use in secondary schools, or for 
colleges in which botany is not an admission requirement. 
It will furnish work for a school year, four or five periods 
per week, or, by suitable omissions, it may readily be adapted 
to a half-year course. 

For a one-year course the author would recommend that the 
chapters be taken in the order in which they occur, as far as 
the seasons will admit of this. Unless greenhouse material 
is freely available, Chapter X would have to be postponed 
until late in the spring. It may also be found necessary to 
take up Chapters XIV— XVI inclusive after Chapters XXI- 
XXIII inclusive. Chapter IX, so far as it discusses the 
forms of leaves, their tips, margins, etc., is for reference only; 
so is Chapter XIII and much of Chapters XV, XVIII, and 
XIX. Chapters XXIII and XXX are not so much to be pre- 
pared for recitation as to be read for general impressions. It 
will probably be found that the best way to use such chap- 
ters is to assign them for home reading and then call for an 
abstract, to be written (without referring to the text-book) in 
school. The author has, indeed, inserted Chapter XXIII 
only out of deference to the opinion of some teachers who 
wish to make the evolutionary history of the vegetable king- 
dom part of their course in botany. There is no doubt that 
organic evolution can be more easily comprehended by a 
study of the phylogeny of animals than of plants, and pupils 



2 ' TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

who are to be given instruction both in zoology and in botany 
should get their ideas of evolution in connection with the 
former subject. Many teachers will no doubt prefer to use 
the ecological chapters of Part II, from time to time, inserted 
in suitable places among the topics of Part I. 

The Key and Flora will probably be much used by some 
teachers and little or not at all by others. To the author the 
analysis of flowering plants seems one of the least impor- 
tant of the many topics for study by a class in elementary 
botany. Whatever work is done in determination of species 
should be done with extreme thoroughness and supplemented 
by some such studies of the families of seed-plants as are 
outlined in Spalding's Introduction to Botany. 

For a half-year course the following options are suggested : 



Omit about half the laboratory work of Chapter I, all the 
microscopical laboratory work of Chapters VI and XI, all but 
the laboratory work and a few definitions of Chapter IX, all 
of Chapters X, XII, XIII, the last half of Chapter XV, the 
first half of Chapter XVI, merely read Chapters XVIII, 
XIX, study one species each from Chapters XX-XXII, omit 
Chapters XXIII-XXVI and XXX. Determine a very few 
species by aid of the Key and Flora, merely to illustrate the 
method. 

B 

Omit as in (A), except that all of the study of cryptogams 
(Chapters XX-XXII) is to be omitted, and take Chapters 
XXIV-XXX. 

c 

Omit as in (A), except that Chapters I-III inclusive are to 
be entirely left out, except the study of the life-history of a 
single seedling and a brief account of the storage of plant- 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 3 

food in the seed. Omit Chapters V-XIII inclusive, except a 
brief statement of the structure and functions of stems and 
leaves, which may be outlined in a series of topics which the 
pupil can expand by aid of designated sections in the text- 
book ; omit also Chapters XIV-XVIII inclusive, except sec- 
tions 205 (or 206 or 207), 208, 214, 221, 226, 227, 229 (or 
230), 233. In place of this omitted matter substitute as 
much of the chapters on cryptogams (XX-XXII inclusive) 
as the time available will allow. 

The author would recommend the half-year course outlined 
in (A), which does not differ greatly from that which he 
himself adopts. (B) is more ecological and (C) more crypto- 
gamic than (A). 

Teachers who are using the text-book for the first time should 
be careful not to spend an undue proportion of the time avail- 
able on the laboratory work of Chapters I and II, VI, or 
XX-XXII. It would be easy to devote the entire half-year 
to the study of stem-structure or to laboratory work on the 
cryptogams discussed in Chapters XX-XXII. 

The ecological portion (Part II) may be treated wholly as 
reading matter, to be read at home and discussed in short 
talks in the class-room ; or it may be studied by aid of 
laboratory and field work, as described on pages 40-42 of this 
pamphlet. This latter method should be followed whenever 
natural plant societies are readily accessible and the pupils 
are sufficiently advanced to identify plants for themselves. 

Whatever course is adopted, the teacher will find it con- 
venient to prepare for his own use an outline of the topics 
discussed. If the headings of the sections of the text-book 
are copied into a small blank book, with space enough left 
under each for brief notes, the use of such an outline will 
greatly facilitate the work of conducting recitations. 

Brief written exercises will save much time that might 
without them have to be devoted to oral recitations. In 



4 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

many cases such short papers may serve to test the pupil's 
observing and reasoning powers, e.g., when he is asked to 
describe a new object somewhat resembling another which he 
has already studied. For instance, he has become familiar 
with the onion-bulb, and is then asked to write (with the 
object in hand) a comparative description of a lily-bulb ; or 
he has studied the histology of sycamore wood and a blue- 
print photomicrograph is given him or a bromide enlargement 
is set up before him, representing sections of sassafras wood, 
similar to the familiar sycamore sections, and he is asked to 
write about the histological resemblances and differences of 
the two kinds of wood. 

Pupils should be required to study and to recite upon 
the illustrations of the text-book. Such cuts as those of 
the magnolia branch (Fig. 35), stem-sections (Figs. 55-58), 
leaf-sections (Figs. 116, 119), and most of the ecological 
illustrations furnish abundant material for discussion. 



CONDUCTING LABORATORY WORK 

Laboratory sections should be small, not over twelve or 
fifteen pupils to each, teacher. The work of the period may be 
indicated by an outline posted upon the laboratory blackboard. 
In most cases there is no objection to the use of the text-book 
in the laboratory, since the laboratory directions of the book 
do not generally tell the pupil what he will see, but rather 
ask him to look for certain organs, structures, or phenomena 
of plant-life which are indicated but not described. In the 
chemical tests given, the pupil is usually asked to discover 
something for himself. In the same way the teacher will 
notice that in most instances the illustrations do not represent 
the identical objects which the class is studying, but similar 
objects. For instance, the germinating castor-bean is figured, 
but not beans, lupines, peas, or corn; the wood-sections, leaf- 
sections, and so on given in the illustrations are not those 
which the class is studying with the microscope. So, too, the 
cryptogamic genera or species of which cuts are furnished 
are not usually the ones studied : e.g., the Saccharomyces of 
Fig. 197 is not the commercial species ; the mosses, ferns, and 
Eauisetum represented in the illustrations are not the ones 
which will probably be in the hands of the class. 

There is some difference of opinion as to whether laboratory 
work in the physical or biological sciences should precede or 
follow the discussion of the objects or phenomena studied. 
In the author's opinion the laboratory work should come first 
in all cases where the thing studied is moderately easy to see 
or to understand. It would be a much less interesting and more 

5 



6 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

difficult way to take up the study of seeds by giving a general 
talk on the origin and homology of the seed than by actually 
investigating the more obvious features of a bean or a squash 
seed. Again, the so-called sleep of leaves should be seen first 
and discussed afterwards. On the other hand, I have found 
that the best way to teach the histology of the leaf is first 
to sketch on the board a very simple and highly diagram- 
matic leaf-section and discuss it at some length, and after this 
take up the details of an actual section. 

The amount of delicate manipulation, such as section-cut- 
ting, making permanent mounts for the microscope, microm- 
eter measurement, and so on, which can be demanded of a 
class, will vary greatly with circumstances. Some experiment- 
ing is usually necessary to decide how much of such manipu- 
lation had better be done for the class and how much by it. 
Perhaps the best criterion in every case of the advisability of 
insisting upon each individual's doing a given piece of work 
is the educational value of the operation. Since, for instance, 
the student can get a far better idea of the structure of a 
grain of corn by cutting his own sections through it than in 
any other way, he should be asked to do so. On the other 
hand, it would be folly to have the beginner spend hours in 
imbedding an object like a hyacinth root-tip and cutting lon- 
gitudinal sections with a microtome when a good mounted 
section can be had for a trifling sum, and the pupil can see 
the general arrangement of parts for himself in a translucent 
root like that of tradescantia or barley. 

It is desirable to make the laboratory work, to some extent, 
optional. No pupil can master even the rudiments of botany 
without conducting for himself some elementary researches. 
But every teacher has discovered that certain pupils soon 
weary of the laboratory work, while others will gladly under- 
take extra investigations, to be done outside of the regu- 
lar hours. The author has frequently adopted the plan of 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 7 

making out lists of optional studies and experiments, for 
which suitable credit is given on the pupil's record. Plenty 
of material for such options will be found in the laboratory 
guides of which the titles are given in the bibliography on 
pages 46-52. 

THE NOTEBOOK 

A good deal of the effectiveness of any course in botany 
which includes some laboratory work will depend on the way 
in which the notebook is kept. 

It is better to have two kinds of paper, one unruled, for 
drawing, the other ruled, for written notes. 1 All drawings 
and sketches should be made in such a way as to bring out 
(as far as the pupil understands them) the characteristic fea- 
tures of the organ or structure which is under investigation. 
A sketch in which a good deal of detail is omitted will, there- 
fore, often be of more value than one in which the attempt is 
made to represent everything. Shading is in general to be 
avoided. The student will need constant admonition not to 
conventionalize what he sees, or to try to give general impres- 
sions. He would, if unguided, very likely represent the 
cross-section of coniferous wood, magnified 150 or 200 times, 
by a set of cross-hatchings, with the lines crossing at oblique 
angles, thus forming a set of very regular, diamond-shaped 
figures. The best antidote to this tendency is to confront the 
conventionalizer at every turn with a camera lucida drawing 
of the thing which he has just sketched, or (better still) with 
a photomicrograph. 

The written notes should be kept in an orderly way ; and 
the book which contains them needs to be indexed, day by 

1 An excellent notebook in which the pages are alternately ruled and 
blank, as recommended by Prof. W. F. Ganong of Smith College, is furnished 
by the Cambridge Botanical Supply Company. 



8 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

day, as the work progresses. The writer feels convinced, as 
the result of a good many years of experience, that it is a 
mischievous practice to require pupils of secondary school age 
to take any notes from rapid dictation. Matter which cannot 
be furnished in cyclostyle or hektograph copies to every pupil 
should be dictated very slowly, or else posted on the board, 
or in a typewritten copy, to which the pupils may have free 
access during study hours. 

Frequent and unexpected examinations of the notebooks by 
the teacher will do more than anything else to make pupils 
exact and painstaking in their record of work done. If a 
binder is used with perforated sheets, to be inserted from 
day to day, it will be found advisable to collect the sheets 
with the most important notes and drawings and sign or stamp 
them before the pupil is allowed to insert them in the book. 
Unsatisfactory sheets should be destroyed and better ones, 
without delay, prepared in their stead. Much importance 
should be given to the valuation of the notebook in judging 
of the owner's progress in his work. 

It is an unpardonable fault in the teacher to allow the notes 
to become mechanical, and it is therefore, in the writer's opin- 
ion, inadmissible to allow any set form of record to be fol- 
lowed throughout the study of any tissue or organ. The 
observations of the pupil may well be grouped in an orderly 
fashion during his first studies of leaves, for example, by fol- 
lowing in the record some such form as that given in any of 
the best plant-analysis blanks, but it would be absurd to 
stretch the learner on such a Procrustes bed more than once. 
It will go far toward training the pupil into a scientific habit 
of mind if he is required in his notes and in his recitations to 
distinguish clearly the sources of his knowledge. He should 
be able to state whether a given piece of information was 
derived from his own experiment or personal study of an 
object or a phenomenon, from an experiment performed by 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 9 

the teacher in the presence of the class, from outside read- 
ing, or from study of the text-book. All notebooks should 
throughout present constant evidence of the care with which 
their owner has kept account of the source of the subject- 
matter which he enters in them. Drawings copied from the 
blackboard or from any book or photograph should be care- 
fully labeled in such a way as to distinguish them from 
original ones. 

The following extract from a notebook will serve to show 
how much of a record an intelligent and interested student 
can, comparatively unaided, make of a physiological experi- 
ment performed at home. No changes have been made in the 
record except in the matter of spelling and in substituting 
the word stem for the pupil's caulicle (hypocotyl.) Of course 
the temperatures were not as constant as the pupil seems 
to have supposed them to be. 

EXPERIMENT I 

Experiment I was to find out the relation of temperature to 
germination. I took four cups and put fourteen peas in them 
which had been soaked in water for twenty-four hours {after I 
had put a piece of blotting-paper in the bottom of each one of 
them), and then saturated the blotting-paper with water. I 
then put one cup in the upper part of the refrigerator, which 
had a temperature of Jf.O° , and put a second in the lower part, 
which had a temperature of 50° ; a third in the dining-room, 
which had a temperature of 70°; and the fourth I put in the 
kitchen, which had a temperature of 80°. 

The results I obtained are on the next page, showing the 
number of seeds sprouted. 



10 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 



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FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 11 

LABOEATOEY AND APPAEATUS 

The laboratory should be a well warmed and lighted room, 
used for nothing but the practical study of plants. Excellent 
suggestions in regard to designing and equipping such a lab- 
oratory may be found in Ganong's Teaching Botanist. It 
would be well for the inexperienced teacher to visit one or 
more good biological laboratories before he undertakes to get 
one ready for his own use. 

Requisites for Each Student. — Every member of the class 
should have : 

Two or three mounted needles. (Prepared by forcing fine 
needles, eye foremost, into round slender sticks, e.g., old 
penholders.) 

A sharp penknife or a scalpel. 

A pair of small steel forceps. 

A good magnifying glass. The best offered at a moderate 
price is the achromatic doublet, sold at $8.40 per dozen (duty 
free) at the American agency of E. Leitz, 411 West 59th 
Street, New York City. These can be had with a nominal 
magnifying power of five or of ten diameters (the latter is to 
be preferred). Their usefulness is greatly increased if they 
can be mounted in a cheap form of dissecting microscope like 
that made by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company and 
known as Barnes's. This can be had at wholesale for about 
$1.88, furnished with one fairly good doublet. 

A large notebook. This is best made by providing heavy 
manila-board or other tough flexible covers (often sold as his- 
tory covers) and perforated paper, some of it ruled and some 
unruled, to be kept in place by McGrilPs or other fasteners* 

A drawing-pencil. 

Pens and holders. 

Eed ink. 

Blue ink. 



12 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

General Equipment of Apparatus. — Compound microscopes, 
as described later. It is desirable to have one for the use of 
each member of the division. Usually it is not possible to 
secure nearly as many instruments as this. Much good work 
may be done with only one or two microscopes, but in this 
case the microscopical work will have to be done partly out 
of the regular class hour and part of it must be carried along 
while the class as a whole is doing other than microscopical 
work. 

A set of photomicrographs of some of the most important 
tissues described in the text, or of similar ones. Blue-prints 
or silver-prints of twenty-four subjects may be obtained from 
Miss E. M. Drury, 45 Munroe Street, Boxbury, Mass. 

Bromide enlargements of photomicrographs made by Mr. 
Samuel F. Tower may be had of Ginn & Company. A cata- 
logue of these is given at the end of this Handbook. They 
are large enough to be used for wall charts and are invaluable 
for histological study. 

A clinostat. One of substantially the same construction as 
that described by Professor Ganong in his Teaching Botanist 
is furnished by the L. E. Knott Apparatus Company, Ashbur- 
ton Place, Boston. 

A small balance. 

The hand-scale with five-inch beam and set of weights from 
.01 gram to 20 grams, furnished by Eimer & Amend of 205- 
211 Third Avenue, New York, for about $2.00, is good enough. 

A trip-scale. The " Harvard trip-scale," furnished by the 
Fairbanks Scale Company, for about $5.70, is well adapted for 
weighing potted plants for transpiration experiments,. etc. 

A cylindrical graduate of 250 to 500 cubic centimeters 
capacity. 

One or two large bell glasses. 

Inexpensive one and two-quart battery jars for use in 
cultivating potted plants, — for transpiration experiments. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 13 

(Earthen flower-pots are not so good, because they permit too 
much evaporation through their sides.) 

Six- or eight-quart dishes for germination experiments. 

Wide-mouthed bottles. 

Glass cylinders of about 300 cubic centimeters capacity for 
water cultures. 

A section-knife, or a razor, flat-ground on one side, hollow- 
ground on the other, for thin sections. 

A heavy section-knife or a flat-ground razor for coarse 
sectioning. 

An Arkansas oilstone. 

Watch-glasses. 

Glass-stoppered reagent bottles. 

Assorted corks and rubber stoppers. 

Microscope slides. 

Thin glass covers. 

Thin sheet rubber, such as is used by dentists, in pieces 
about twenty-four inches square (this is not needed if the 
teacher prefers to use sheet lead in the transpiration experi- 
ment ; see page 161). 

The following apparatus will be found extremely conven- 
ient, but it is by no means indispensable : 

A recording auxanometer, as described in Ganong's Teaching 
Botanist. This is furnished by the Knott Apparatus Company 
for $8.00. 

A horizontal microscope, for study of water-roots, etc. The 
Bausch & Lomb Optical Company furnish an excellent instru- 
ment (Catalogue A, Sixteenth Edition) N 1 for $34.00. 

A very simply made support for use with the tube of a 
Bausch & Lomb or Leitz microscope will be furnished by the 
Knott Apparatus Company for $16.00. 

A still cheaper plan is to support the microscope tube on 
an iron ring-stand, as shown in Handbook, Fig. 1. 



14 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 



A simple section-cutter or microtome. The one sold to 
schools by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company at about 
$20.00, and known as the student's microtome, will answer 
a good purpose. Their barrel microtome, sold for $6.00, will 
enable one to cut a better section than can be done free-hand. 

A double-walled 
thermos tat- 
chamber of sheet 
copper with self- 
regulating gas- 
burner, for use in 
germination ex- 
periments, bacte- 
ria cultures, and 
so on. Such a 
chamber, 10 X 12 
inches, is fur- 
nished by the 
Knott Apparatus 
Company for 
$22.00. The 

Microscope on King-stand. p]ace of tMg can 

be to some extent supplied by a small incubator. The small- 
est size sold by Joseph Breck & Sons, North Market Street, 
Boston, costs $6.00. 

A wardian case, as described in Ganong's Teaching Botanist. 
The case (without any provisions for heating) can be had 
of dimensions 33 X 10 inches and 24 inches high of M. D. 
Jones & Co., 71 and 73 Portland St., Boston, for $13.50. It 
consists of glass, set in a steel frame and standing in a 
galvanized iron pan. 

An aquarium or a large goldfish globe. An aquarium large 
enough to serve well (14 x 24 in.) can be bought of M. D. 
Jones & Co. for $12.50. 




Fig. l. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 15 

General Reagents and Other Supplies. — Alcohol, commercial, 
95 per cent. 

Alcohol, absolute, a few ounces only. 

Hematoxylin solution. 1 

Canada balsam. 

Caustic potash solution, 1 part of solid caustic potash in 
20 parts distilled water. 

Nitric acid, concentrated. 

Chromic acid. 

Eosin solution. 2 

Potassium chlorate. 

Fehling's solution, test for grape sugar. This reagent 
may be bought of the wholesale druggist or dealer in chemi- 
cals. It may be prepared by dissolving 34.64 grams pure 
crystallized cupric sulphate in 200 cubic centimeters water 
and mixing the solution with 150 grams neutral potassic 
tartrate, dissolved in about 500 cubic centimeters of a 10-per 
cent solution of sodium hydrate. The whole is then to be 
diluted with water to 1 liter and 100 cubic centimeters glycerine 
added. 

Millon's reagent for proteids. Prepared by dissolving 
1 part by weight of mercury in 2 parts of nitric acid of 
sp. gr. 1.42 and then diluting with twice its volume of 
water. 

Preservative fluid, prepared by adding 1 part of formalin 
to 40 of water by volume. This does not alter the natural 
colors of most objects kept in it, and will preserve vegetable 
tissues indefinitely. 

1 It is cheaper to buy this than to make it. 

2 As considerable quantities of this are to be used (especially if it is issued 
to the class for home work), if it cannot be bought very cheaply the instructor 
may make it for himself by dissolving eosin in water. Eosin costs by the 
pound from (1.65 to S2.00. It may be bought of F. E. Atteaux & Co., 
176 Purchase Street, Boston. An ounce will make as much as two quarts 
of the solution. 



16 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

Mercury. 

Pure glycerine. 

Glycerine and distilled water, equal parts. 

Carbolic acid crystals. 

Carbolic acid, 2-per cent solution. 

Iodine solution, prepared by dissolving 4 grams potassium 
iodide in 40 cubic centimeters distilled water, adding 1 gram 
iodine, and, when it is entirely dissolved, diluting the solution 
to 1000 cubic centimeters. 

Syrups of various strengths for pollen-tube production, made 
by dissolving ordinary granulated sugar in boiling-hot dis- 
tilled water. The water should be weighed cold, then heated 
in a flask and the weighed amount of sugar added. It will be 
found less troublesome to weigh out the required amounts in 
this way than to make a saturated solution and dilute it. 
Syrups of 2, 5, 10, 15, 25, and 30 per cent sugar will furnish 
range enough for experiment. If they are kept in glass- 
stoppered bottles which have been rinsed out with chromic 
acid solution and then with distilled or thoroughly boiled 
water, the syrup will keep for years. 

Ammonium nitrate, 4-per cent solution. This may be added 
in small quantities to potted plants as a fertilizer. 

Nutrient solution for water cultures made by dissolving in 
10 liters of water : 

10 grams calcium nitrate. 

2.5 " potassium chloride. 

2.5 " magnesium sulphate. 

2.5 " mono-potassium phosphate, KH2PO4. 

A few drops of solution of ferric chloride should be added 
to each liter of the nutrient solution at the time of using. 

Ether, commercial, for extraction of oil from seeds. (Ben- 
zine is cheaper and will answer nearly as well.) 

Sand, pine sawdust, blotting paper, for germination of seeds. 
Grafting wax. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 17 

Botanical apparatus and laboratory supplies of every de- 
scription, including material for study, will be furnished by 
the Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, 1286 Massachu- 
setts Avenue, Cambridge, Mass. This company has a priced 
list of articles needed for the Foundations of Botany, sent on 
application. 

Apparatus can also be had of Williams, Brown & Earle, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

Supplies are furnished by the Ithaca Botanical Supply 
Company, Ithaca, IS". Y. 

Chemicals and apparatus are furnished by the Bausch & 
Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, X. Y. Their catalogues 
are most valuable. 

THE USE OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 

The Instrument. — Eor elementary class work a low-priced 
but strong and well-made instrument is needed. Several of 
the European makers furnish excellent instruments for use in 
such a course as that here outlined. Among these are the Leitz 
microscopes, which are furnished by William Krafft, 411 West 
59th Street, New York City, or by the Agency of E. Leitz, 
659 W. Congress Street, Chicago, 111., and those of Reichert, 
sold by Richards & Co., 46 Park Place, New York City. 
The Leitz stand, No. IV, can be furnished duty free (for 
schools only), with objectives 1, 3, and 5, eye-pieces I and III, 
for $24.50. If several instruments are being provided, it 
would be well to have part of them equipped with objectives 
3 and 7, and eye-pieces I and III. The best form of camera 
lucida for this microscope costs (duty free) $7.80. 

The American manufacturers, Bausch & Lomb Optical Com- 
pany, Rochester, N. Y., and Stewart Building, corner State 
and Washington Streets, Chicago, 111., have recently produced 
a microscope of the Continental type which is especially 



18 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

designed to meet the requirements of the secondary schools 
for an instrument with rack and pinion coarse adjustment and 
serviceable fine adjustment, at a low price. They furnish 
this new stand, " B," to schools and teachers at " duty-free " 
rates, a really good equipment being the stand with two eye- 
pieces (any desired power), f-inch and J-inch objectives, or 
with 2-inch, f-inch, and^-inch objectives, and two eye-pieces. 

A cheaper, but serviceable instrument is stand "A," the 
same stand as the "B," without joint and with sliding tube 
coarse adjustment (as in the Leitz stand IV) and with three 
eye-pieces, and f-inch and J-inch objectives. A preferable 
combination at the same price is stand "A," with two eye- 
pieces, f-inch and £-inch objectives. The prices vary from 
$20 to $30 according to the equipment chosen and the number 
of instruments ordered. 

Class Use of the Microscope. — If the class works in a special 
laboratory in small divisions (not more than twelve), the 
teacher can examine the preparation of the object, the focusing 
of the instrument, and the sketch which the pupil is making, 
— all while the work is going on. But if the class unfortu- 
nately consists of from twenty-five to forty pupils, in an 
ordinary recitation room, a good deal of ingenuity will be 
needed to secure results of any value. 

The microscopes with the prepared objects should be placed 
upon the desks or tables which are best illuminated, that is, 
with a strong side light, but not in sunlight. 

If a ready prepared object (not the pupil's own section) is 
under examination, it is important to have a card attached to 
each microscope stating what object is upon the stage and 
what magnifying power is given by the combination in use. 
The class may sometimes be divided, and half, or less than 
half, be allowed to work with the microscope while the rest 
are engaged in written or oral recitation, or in examining 
the gross anatomy of the seed, root, stem, etc. Each student 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 19 

should be required to take his notebook to the microscope 
and draw while at the instrument. 

Several of the best sketches may be put on the board 
toward the end of the hour, and a composite drawing finally 
made, embodying the best portions of each. A still better 
plan is to have posted at the last a drawing which the 
instructor has prepared beforehand (best with the aid of the 
camera lucida, or from a photomicrograph), and if desirable 
to have this copied by the class. The objects sought should 
be to allow the pupils to see as much as possible for them- 
selves, but to make sure before leaving the object that they 
understand its real form and structure. 

Magnifying Power. — The lowest magnifying power which 
will show the desired structure is to be preferred, both 
because this admits of the best illumination and (when the 
instruments must be left adjusted for use by several pupils 
in succession) because an average focusing which will suit 
most of the eyes in the class can be secured with objectives 
of -J-inch or longer focus, but not with higher powers. Con- 
stant use should be made of the 1-J-inch or 2-inch objective to 
give general views of the object. A double nose-piece with 
2-inch and ^-inch, or 1-inch and £-inch objectives attached 
will save much time and trouble. 

The class may best be made to understand the meaning of 
the term "magnifying power " by examining the same simple 
object as seen with several powers. For instance, a letter of 
ordinary print (e.g., the finest used in this book) may be 
examined with the naked eye and with the magnifying glass. 
Then sketches on cardboard may be handed round to show 
the size of the object, drawn with the camera lucida as seen 
under the 2-inch objective, with others drawn to scale, to 
show the effect of all the other magnifying combinations 
which the microscopes belonging to the school afford. 

For further suggestions in regard to the manipulation and 



20 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

use of the microscope the teacher is referred to any of the 
standard works on the subject. The little book of Charles 
H. Clark, cited in the bibliography, is compact and usable. 
See also The Laboratory Manual of High School Botany, 
by Clements and Cutter. 

An important adjunct to the microscopical work (or, if need 
be, a partial substitute for it) consists in the use of photo- 
micrographs of the most important tissues. The mounted 
silver-prints, or unmounted blue-prints, may be numbered 
and given out to the division for study at the desk after the 
structure in question has been studied with a microscope. If a 
bromide enlargement of a photomicrograph of the object 
under consideration is available, it may be placed before the 
class near the close of the period assigned for microscopical 
work. Ample time should be given for careful examination of 
the pictures thus given out, and then the members of the divi- 
sion may be questioned individually on the photographs, or a 
written exercise may be given in which all shall write as 
fully as possible about the photomicrographs examined. The 
teacher will find that the prints differ just enough from the 
somewhat diagrammatic or idealized cuts usually given in 
books to afford an admirable opportunity for the pupil to 
exercise his powers of observation and discrimination, in 
making out the exact nature of the several tissue elements 
to be found in each photograph. 

MATERIAL FOR STUDY 

Chapter I. — Squash seeds, beans, peas, sunflower seeds, 
white lupine seeds, horse-chestnuts, or buckeyes, corn, malt. 
Seedlings may be taken at any desired stage of growth and 
preserved in formalin for study. 

Chapter II. — Sprouted peas, clover seed, four-o'clock seed, 
Indian corn, boiled green corn in alcohol, bean seedlings three 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 21 

weeks old, ground flaxseed, soaked corn, corn meal, flour, oat- 
meal, buckwheat flour, rye flour, rice, mustard seed, Bermuda 
arrowroot, sunflower seeds, peanuts, Brazil nuts. Also elder- 
pith, or sunflower-pith, mounted sections of cotyledons of 
soaked beans and of bean cotyledons from seedlings just ready 
to shed them. 

Chapter III. — Barley, red clover seed, squash seedlings in 
all stages of growth, seedlings of four or five kinds preserved 
in formalin solution for the permanganate test, sprouted peas 
for Experiment XIV, pine seedlings. 

Seeds, bulbs, etc., may be obtained of J. M. Thorburn & Co., 
36 Cortlandt St., K Y., Joseph Breck & Sons, 51-52 North 
\Earket St., Boston, or the nearest local dealer. 

Chapter IV. — Cuttings of tradescantia, cornstalks with 
roots, water-hyacinth, microscopic sections of roots, 1 parsnips, 
dahlia roots or sweet potatoes, begonia leaves, fresh eggs, 
potted plants of dahlia, Helianthus, Ricinus, Begonia, cucum- 
ber, or tomato, for root-pressure experiment, tobacco seedlings, 
sprouting Windsor beans, sprouting peas, living Spirogyr'a, or 
other pondscum. 

Chapter V. — Twigs of horse-chestnut^ hickory, beech, etc., 
with winter buds, twigs to illustrate alternate and opposite 
branching, potatoes, onions, rootstocks of iris, sweetflag, or 
sedges (best in preservative fluid), living cactus plants, sprays 
of garden asparagus pressed as herbarium specimens (or of the 
common greenhouse species in a fresh condition), Myrsiphyllum. 

Chapter VI. — Cornstalk (in preservative fluid), palmetto 
in large billets, rattan, bamboo, asparagus, sunflower stems 
(in preservative fluid), billets of coarse-grained hard wood 
{e.g., red oak) 6-12 in. long, cut off squarely at the ends, split 
through the pith, planed very smooth, and coated with white 
shellac ; also other billets planed through the bark so as to 
show the edges of the medullary rays (tangential section), 

1 See list below. 



22 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

twigs (fresh or in preservative fluid) of cherry or birch, also 
of one of the following trees or shrubs : alder, box-elder, 
wahoo, willow; also of elm, leatherwood, pawpaw, or bass- 
wood. Prepare or procure microscopical sections of corn- 
stem or other annual monocotyledonous stem and of the 
objects described in Sect. 107; also see list below. 

Chapter VII. — Fresh shoots of apple or cherry and of oak, 
ash, or elm, fuchsia growing in a flowerpot, microscopic sec- 
tions of twigs cut in November, potatoes, onions, tulip bulbs. 

Chapter VIII. — Twigs with winter buds of horse-chestnut 
or buckeye, hickory, beech, tulip tree, lilac. Growing plants 
of geranium (pelargonium) or Hydrangea Hortensia, or Ficus 
elastica, to show naked buds. A cabbage (preferably a red 
one), a Bryophyllum leaf. 

Chapter IX. — Leafy twigs of elm and maple, a variety 
of netted-veined and some parallel-veined leaves, compound 
leaves of several kinds. 

Chapter X. — Potted plants of oxalis and sensitive plants, 
sunflower seedlings a foot or more high to show movement of 
leaves to secure sunlight. 

Chapter XI. — Fresh lily leaves, microscopical preparations 
(see list below), fresh hydrangea or cucumber leaves, potted 
hydrangeas and rubber plants (Sect. 171), leaves of let- 
tuce, hydrangea, maple, hickory, cucumber or " calla lily " 
(Richardia) to show course of water in bundles (Sect. 173). 
Elodea, Fontinalis, Spirogyra, etc., growing in water to show 
oxygen-excretion (Sect. 178). Growing nasturtium plants or 
leaves prepared as described in Sect. 181. Early summer and 
late fall leaves of trees in alcohol. 

Chapter XII. — Living plasmodia of Myxomycetes, if obtain- 
able. Fresh flowers of any species of tradescantia, or living 
Chara or Nitella in water. 

Chapter XIII. — [As this chapter is intended for reference 
only, no separate material need be provided for illustrating it.] 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 23 

Chapter XIV. — Flowers of trillium, tulip, buttercup, Calo- 
chortus, Fritillaria, Erythronium, Liriodendron (or any others, 
more easily obtainable, which are regular, large, and of simple 
structure). If this work is to be done in the autumn, simple 
flowers are more difficult to find. Gentiana, Datura, and other 
. solanaceous genera, Pelargonium and Gladiolus, are available. 

Chapter XV. — Imperfect flowers, as those of willow, poplar, 
walnut, birch, hazel, begonia. 

It is best to begin practice on floral diagrams with flowers 
so firm and large that actual sections of them may be cut with 
ease and the relations of the parts in the section readily made 
out. Among the many excellent early flowers for practice in 
constructing diagrams maybe mentioned tulip, trillium, blood- 
root, dogtooth violet, marsh marigold, buttercup, tulip tree, 
horse-chestnut, or buckeye, Jeffersonia, May-apple, cherry, 
apple, crocus, daffodil, primrose, wild ginger, cranesbill, locust, 
bluebell. 

Chapter XVI. — For study of morphology of the flower, 
flowers of Nymphaia or Nuphar, Calycanthus, any cactus with 
transitions from bracts to sepals and petals, all in preservative 
fluid. Fresh pollen of Cytisus, sweet pea, or nasturtium, 
mounted slide of pollen (see list below). 

Chapter XVTI. — Fruits of tomato, capsicum, lemon, bean, 
dock, or any convenient substitutes for these, some fleshy and 
some dry ones ; a series of strawberries in formalin to show 
the progressive enlargement of the receptacle, a similar series 
to show the production of an aggregate fruit {e.g., mulberry) 
by the coalescence of the ovaries and other parts of many 
flowers. 

Chapter XX. — Slime moulds in general may be looked for 
on any kind of rotten wood or bark. Tan bark is often cov- 
ered with them. Stemonitis abounds on decaying basswood and 
on various kinds of rotten coniferous wood. On laboratory 
cultivation of slime moulds, see Professor Macbride's article 



24 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

in Rhodora for April, 1900. See also The North American 
Slime Moulds, by Thomas H. Macbride, The Macmillan 
Company. 

Bacteria may be procured for study as suggested in the 
text, or by soaking the green parts of plants in water in a 
warm place for a few days. The dealers in botanical supplies 
can usually furnish slides of named species or material for 
pure cultures. See Bausch & Lomb's catalogue of Microscopes 
and Accessories. 

Oscillatoria and related forms may most easily be found in 
filthy ponds, pools, ditches, or brooks. The outlet by which a 
sewer discharges into a stream of fresh water is nearly sure 
to afford an abundant supply of material. It may be collected 
at almost any time of the year, or may be preserved in formalin 
solution. The collector can distinguish it from Spirogyra and 
related forms by its darker bluish-green color, by the velvety 
covering which it forms on sticks, stones, etc., and, in most 
cases, by the comparative shortness of the filaments. 

Diatoms nearly free from admixture with foreign substances 
are found in many polishing powders ; e.g., in the " Silver 
Cream " and the " Bed Star Cleaning Powder," manufactured 
by J. A. Wright & Co., Keene, ISTew Hampshire. 

Whenever a brownish slime full of gas-bubbles or a brown- 
ish scum is found on the bottoms and margins of ponds and 
brooks or floating on their surfaces, it may be collected and 
examined for living diatoms. Great numbers (usually of only 
a few species at any given time) may often be collected in a 
small bag of very fine muslin tied tightly over a faucet, which 
is then allowed to run slowly for some hours. Some should 
be studied in a living condition and others deprived of all but 
their siliceous shells. 

The author has found it easiest to get rid of the organic 
matter in a dry mass of diatomaceous material by boiling the 
substance a few moments in concentrated chemically pure 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 



25 



sulphuric acid in a porcelain evaporator and then cautiously 
adding minute fragments of pure sodium nitrate to the boiling 
mixture. The white residue obtained after cooling and pour- 
ing off the excess of acid may be washed with distilled water 
and kept for study. Ordinary pupils should not be trusted to 
perform these operations, as the boiling acid is too dangerous 
for them to handle. 

If Spirogyra is not easily found, the teacher may advan- 
tageously use Zygnema or Mesocarpus. Any of these organisms 
may be recognized by their grass-green or paler color, their 
frequently floating habit, and (with a strong 
lens) by their structure. It is desirable to 
pick out the coarser species for study. Live 
specimens are much more beautiful and inter- 
esting than dead ones in preservative fluid, 
but the latter are better than nothing. If 
conjugating material cannot be found, it may 
be obtained of the dealers in botanical sup- 
plies. Spnrogyra may with care be cultivated 
indoors in ordinary well or spring water, or 
better in nutrient solution (Handbook, p. 16). 
It should be kept in a cool but somewhat 
sunny place and aerated by dripping water. 

Pleurococcus is so abundant, especially on 
the north or shaded side of unpainted fences 
or the bark of trees, that it can usually be 
collected at any time of year. It will keep in 
a dormant condition for any desired length of 
time if left in a dry place in the laboratory, 
and should then be moistened a day or two 
before it is to be studied, to insure active growth and cell- 
division. Protococcus is much more profitable to study, 
particularly in its motile condition, but harder to obtain. 
Pools in barnyards, containing the leachings of manure 




Fig. 2. — Cell from 
a Thread of Pond- 
scum {Spirogyra). 
(Magnified about 
90 diameters.) 

k, nucleus; ch, spi- 
ral band contain- 
ing chlorophyll ; 
p, pyrenoids, lit- 
tle masses of pro- 
teid material with 
starch-grains. 



26 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 



heaps, are especially likely in warm weather to afford an 
abundant supply of this organism. 

Vaucheria is most easily found in greenhouses, as suggested 
in the text. It is, however, often sterile when growing on 
soil, and should be immersed in plenty of water and allowed 
to grow there for some six weeks before it is wanted for study. 
It will then be comparatively clean and may fruit. 

Nitella and Char a are rather local in their distribution. They 
usually grow in clear ponds or in streams where the current 

is not too swift. They may 
be recognized by the peculiar 
orange-colored fruit, which is 
easily seen with a good lens. 
Nitella is much more slender 
than Chara, and is so translu- 
cent that the movements of 
the cell-contents may be more 
readily made out under the 
microscope. Either plant will 
grow readily in a well-lighted 
aquarium, supplied with plenty 
of pond, river, spring, or well 
water. 

Fucus vesiculosus is the most 
generally available species of 
rockweed, but others may be 
substituted for it. When it 
can be collected at all it may 
generally be gathered by the 
wagon-load. Schools in the interior can most conveniently 
obtain it from the dealers in botanical supplies or by exchange 
with teachers of schools near the seaboard. It is best preserved 
in formalin. 

The red algae (of which Nemalion is one of the commonest) 




Fig. 3. — Common Bladder-wrack or 
Rockweed, Fucus vesiculosus. (Re- 
duced to about one-third the natu- 
ral size.) 

b, air-bladders ; /, conceptacles. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 27 

have few fresh-water forms. Batrachospermum, with a thread- 
like thallus, fringed at intervals with necklace-like short 
filaments, is one of these not infrequently found in brooks 
and springs. Carrageen, or Irish moss, may often be bought 
in a dried condition of grocers. Inland schools, however, will 
usually have to depend on dealers in botanical supplies for 
suitable material for the study of the red algae. Teachers who 
have an opportunity to collect sea mosses will find many 
genera as interesting as Nemalion, but some of them are of 
much less simple structure. 

Moulds. — If any difficulty is experienced in procuring 
material for the study of black mould, Rhizopus nigricans, the 
common sage-green mould, Penicillium glaucum, can always be 
procured and propagated as described in Huxley and Martin's 
Biology. 

The quickest and most certain mode of obtaining a good crop 
of the desired mould is to sow its spores upon the wet bread 
or other culture medium that is used. Spores may be kept 
indefinitely, in a dry condition, for this purpose. Exposing 
the bread to a confined portion of the atmosphere of any place, 
e.g., a cellar, where the desired mould has previously flourished, 
will insure a prompt growth of the mould anew. 

Wheat Rust. — This may be collected on the leaves or stems 
of grains or grasses when the host-plant is mature, in summer 
or autumn. The leaves make better material for sectioning 
than do stems. The cluster-cup stage is to be looked for as 
suggested in Sects. 310, 311. 

Microsphaera. 1 — Of the host-plants mentioned in the text the 
lilac is perhaps the most generally found. Leaves of the lilac 
should be collected in late June or in July for the purpose 
of showing the development of mycelium and conidia, and 

1 The teacher should be careful to explain, if both Puccinia and Microsphsera 
are studied, that though placed side by side in the text their systematic posi- 
tion is otherwise. 




28 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

another set of leaves in the autumn, when rough black dots 
show the presence of conceptacles. The leaves are to be dried 
under pressure between layers of absorbent paper and kept in 
a dry place until needed for study. 

Saccharomyces. — Ordinary compressed yeast is the best 
source for yeast cultures. Occasionally other species will be 
found together with the commercial S. cerevisice in ferment- 
ing liquids into which no organism except 
the ordinary yeast has been intentionally in- 
troduced. Fig. 197 represents S. ellipsoideus. 
The subjoined figure, Handbook, Fig. 4, is of 
S. cerevisice. 

Lichens. — The encrusting lichens (some- 
what like Fig. 198) may be found upon the 
bark of trees or upon rocks in shaded situa- 
fig. 4. — Yeast (the tions over a considerable portion of the 
commercial species, countr y. Lichens of the general form of 

Saccharomyces ce- 

revisise) increasing Fig. 198 Or Fig. 199 are Commonest north- 
by Budding. ward but can easil be obta i ne( i f the 

(Greatly magnified.) # ^ 

dealers in botanical material by teachers who 
cannot collect them for themselves. All specimens should be 
gathered when the apothecia are well developed, that is (for 
most genera), in late autumn. 

Liverworts. — Marchantia is described in the text because it 
is very widely distributed and grows freely in greenhouses or 
can be cultivated under bell-glasses in the laboratory. Out 
of doors it flourishes on rocks or earth which are kept con- 
stantly damp, as by the water which percolates from a brook 
or spring or the spray from a waterfall. M. polymorpha is the 
commonest species. Figs. 201, 202 represent a rare species, 
M. disjuncta. Specimens to show the structure of the thallus 
and the gemmae may be collected at any time when the plants 
are in vigorous condition, but those which are to be studied for 
the heads of antheridia and of archegonia must be carefully 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 29 

selected in late spring or summer. Archegonial heads to be 
used for sections must be collected before their stalks have 
lengthened much ; others should be collected and examined 
when mature. Antheridial heads should be nearly full-grown 
when put into preservative fluid for study. Conocephalus is 
another large liverwort, which grows in the open air in simi- 
lar localities to Marchantia, but is less generally distributed 
and not as easily cultivated. It may readily be distinguished 
from Marchantia by having larger diamond-shaped markings 
on the thallus, by the absence of gemmae and the sessile con- 
dition of the antheridia. Excellent descriptions and figures 
of many North American liverworts can be found in Gray's 
Majiual of Botany. 

Mtsses. — The true mosses are well represented by the 
species described in the text. 

Polytrichum commune. This is selected as one of the 
largest and commonest of mosses. If any other tolerably 
conspicuous genus, such as Mnium,, Bryum, or Atrichum, is 
more readily obtainable, the teacher may as well use it. For 
an excellent account of the structure and physiology of 
mosses, consult Bennett and Murray's Cryptogamic Botany. 
For the determination of species, see Lesquereux and James' 
Mosses of North America. All mosses for class study should 
be collected when the archegonia and antheridia are fully 
developed, that is (for many genera), in early spring. If the 
moss is dioecious, pains should be taken to get sufficient num- 
bers both of male and of female plants. The former may 
usually be recognized by the shallow, bowl-shaped clusters of 
leaves at the tips of the branches, with minute dark-red 
antheridia in the bottom of the concavity. The female 
plants have terminal leaves which stand nearly erect, so as 
to shut in the antheridia. Plenty of specimens with spore- 
capsules in various stages of development should be secured, 
some with the hood in place (as shown in the left-hand 



30 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 



ap> 



rh 



Fig. 5. —A Plant of Pigeon- 
wheat Moss (Polytrichum 
commune). 

rh, root-like portion ; s, bris- 
tle-like stalk of calyptra, 
or spore-case ; c, hood-like 
cover of calyptra; ap, 
knob at base of calyptra ; 
d, cover of calyptra. 
(Natural size.) 



calyptra of Handbook, Fig. 5), others 
more mature, for the study of fully ripe 
spores. 

Protonema may often be collected in 
good condition on the earth beneath and 
close by patches of full-grown moss. 

Ferns. — The outline given in the 
text-book for the examination of a fern 
applies exactly only to Asplenium filix- 
foemina. Any species of Asplenium or 
of Aspidium is just as well adapted for 
study. Cystopteris is excellent, but the 
indusium is hard to find. Polypodium 
vulgare is a simple and generally ac- 
cessible form, but has no indusium. 
Pteris aquilina is of world-wide distri- 
bution, but differs in habit from most 
of our ferns. The teacher who wishes 
to go into detail in regard to the gross 
anatomy or the histology of ferns as 
exemplified in Pteris will find a care- 
ful study of it in Huxley and Martin's 
Biology, or a fully illustrated account 
in Sedgwick and Wilson's Biology. 

The asexual generation or spore-plant 
of whatever fern is selected for study 
should be collected as soon as the spo- 
rangia are fully developed. Some plants 
may be pressed entire between many 
sheets of absorbent paper and pre- 
served in folded sheets of manila paper 
for study. Others may have all but 
the sporangia-bearing portions of the 
fronds cut away, to save space, and 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 31 

thus be dried, while still other portions of fronds and of root- 
stocks may be kept for study in preservative fluid. 

The prothallia may be collected as described in the text. 
Unless the teacher has a good deal of time at his disposal, he 
may find it better economy to buy sections of the antheridia 
and archegonia than to direct pupils in cutting them or to cut 
and mount them himself. 

Equisetum. — E. aruense is the commonest species. It 
bears a pretty close resemblance to the one represented in 
Fig. 213. The fertile stems appear in early spring in sandy 
or wet soil, often along railroad embankments and in similar 
habitats. These are colorless and (above ground) nearly or 
quite branchless, as shown in Fig. 213. They should be col- 
lected and kept in preservative fluid for use. The branching 
green, sterile stems, which appear later than the fertile ones, 
may be dried and thus preserved. 

Lycopodium. — This is one of the commonest plants of pine 
and other evergreen woods of the northern United States, 
and is generally known as ground pine, ground cedar, or ever- 
green. In northern cities it can be had in abundance at the 
Christmas season, when it is sold for decorative purposes. 
The spikes of spore-cases should be kept for study in preserv- 
ative fluid, and entire plants should be dried for class use. 
Selaginella may be bought of florists at any season. 



RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment I. — Various seeds should be used in different 
years so as to procure a set of observations for the optimum 
temperature for germination in the case of several seeds. 

According to Sachs the temperatures (Centigrade) on the 
following page were obtained for the seeds named. 



32 



TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 
Temperatures (Centigrade). 





Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Optimum. 


Barley 


5° 


38° 


29° 


Wheat 


5° 


42° 


29° 


Scarlet runner .... 


9.5° 


46° 


33° 


Indian corn .... 


9.5° 


46° 


33° 


Squash 


11° 


46° 


33° 



It will probably be found that for moderate temperatures 
(say from 40° to 80° F.) a higher temperature insures quick 
germination. It may not secure an unusually large per- 
centage of seeds finally germinated. 

Experiment II. — The student (and perhaps the teacher) will 
be surprised to find how little water is absolutely essential for 
the germination of most seeds. 

Experiment III. — If this experiment is tried with the seeds 
in an approximate vacuum, none will germinate. The appa- 
ratus must be carefully watched to see whether a minute crack 
forms on the drawn-out end of the tube (Fig. 3). The trouble 
arising from the formation of such a crack may sometimes be 
avoided by thickly painting the drawn-out end of the tube, as 
soon as it cools, with a melted mixture of beeswax and resin, 
equal parts. 

Experiment IV. — If the seeds used in this experiment are 
rinsed with five per cent formalin solution and then thoroughly 
with clear water before germinating, the chance of carbon 
dioxide being formed by decay due to bacteria on the surfaces 
of the seeds will be lessened. 1 

Experiment V. — Be careful to select peas of about the same 
size and with roots of equal length at the outset. If the 
seedlings do not show marked differences at the end of a 
i See Barnes' Plant Life, Holt, New York, 1898, p. 398. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY SB 

week, keep them under observation and also start a new set. 
Usually the one with both cotyledons will in the long run 
greatly outstrip the others. 

Experiment VI. — This experiment is not very valuable but 
suggests the truth. A small patch of ground at home, planted 
with grass seed, and a few hills of corn planted by the pupil 
will teach far more. 

Experiment VII. — See notes on V. 

Experiment VIII. — Before pronouncing authoritatively on 
the results reported by the pupils, the teacher should for him- 
self test all seeds that are on the doubtful list, using thin 
sections and examining them with the dissecting microscope, 
or the lowest power of the compound microscope. If the seed 
is oily, removing the oil with ether, will make results more 
definite. Do not let the pupils decide that dry beans and 
peas contain no starch, because the seed is too hard to absorb 
iodine solution quickly. Boiling the seeds for some time will 
aid in the application of the test. Ground mustard is usually 
adulterated with, flour, so that tests on mustard must be 
performed on seeds crushed by the pupil. 

Experiment IX. — No special pains are needed to make this 
experiment succeed. 

Experiment X. — The Millon's reagent is troublesome to 
make and not always satisfactory in its working. The sugar 
and sulphuric acid test often succeeds, and the nitric acid test 
is almost always satisfactory. The addition of ammonia 
water, after rinsing off the nitric acid, improves the color for 
a time. The xanthoproteic reaction (shown by the yellow 
color) produced by the nitric acid is in some cases very per- 
manent. The powder left after extracting oil from pulp made 
of Brazil-nut kernels will remain strongly yellow for years, 
after treating with nitric acid, if kept in a glass-stoppered 
bottle. It may be found convenient to keep it so to show to 
successive classes. 



34 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

Experiment XI. — The Brazil nut yields a large amount of 
proteid material, much oil and no starch. 

See notes on X. 

Experiment XII. — The teacher will probably find that the 
arch of the hypocotyl is formed to some extent, even when 
seeds are germinating in moist air without any pressure of 
soil upon them, but that it is less perfect than when the seed 
sprouts under normal conditions. It is probably worth while 
to call the attention of the class to the fact that the plantlet 
rising from the ground in the usual arched fashion pushes up 
twice as strongly as it would if only a single column were 
displacing the bits of earth, pebbles, etc., above it ; that is to 
say, both the root end and the cotyledon end of the hypocotyl 
are cooperating in the upward push. 

Experiment XIII. — The permanganate test is not to be 
relied upon as affording an exact indication of the boundary 
between root and hypocotyl. In fact, as has been suggested 
to me by Mr. I. S. Cutter, there is in some seedlings a consid- 
erable intermediate region which is neither root nor stem, but 
partakes in its histological character of the characteristics of 
both. The teacher will, however, probably find it worth 
while to make this test, especially in order to make it clear in 
the case of such plants as the pea, in which the hypocotyl 
elongates very little, that the part which rises above ground 
is the first internode above the cotyledons and that the 
cotyledons are remaining underground from the fact that the 
hypocotyl has not elongated enough to push them out. 

Experiment XIV. — This experiment is not sure to succeed 
very satisfactorily, since in a good many cases the young roots 
wither or decay before much growth takes place, after they 
have been marked. It is possible to discover (when the 
experiment is successful) not only the fact that the growth of 
the root is mainly from the tip, but that a slight amount of 
increase in length takes place throughout a limited region 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 35 

back of the tip. The marking should never be done with 
ordinary ink or with any substance which will injure the 
tissues of the sensitive young root. 

Experiment XV. — The egg-osmosis experiment has been 
selected in preference to the familiar ones with bladders or 
osmotic cylinders mainly on account of its convenience. A 
pig's bladder filled with molasses serves very well to illustrate 
the fact of osmotic exchange, but pains must be taken to tie 
it very firmly to the glass tube that is employed, and to use a 
tube which has been somewhat expanded at the lower end to 
prevent the ligature from slipping off. The osmosis cylinders 
sold by dealers in apparatus are exceedingly convenient, but 
the experiment made under such circumstances has an air of 
artificiality; that is, the pupil is too apt to think that the 
whole process is an artificial one and to doubt whether under 
natural conditions it would take place with equal readiness. 

Experiment XVI. — This experiment is exceedingly easy 
to perform, but not very striking. It is much better for 
individual use than for class demonstration. 

Experiment XVII. — It is quite possible that tobacco seed- 
lings are no better for this experiment than some others, but 
the tobacco is the plant which has been most investigated in 
this connection. It should be found (according to Pfeffer) 
that the wilting begins at about 35 to 39° F. 

Experiment XVTII. — No particular discussion of this experi- 
ment is necessary. 

Experiment XIX. — In addition to the discussion in the text, 
the teacher might impress upon the student the fact that the 
force with which the tip of a young root lying horizontally 
presses downward is no criterion of the total force which may 
be exerted by a more mature root under favorable conditions. 
In the former case the entire root would be bent upward by 
any decided resistance applied to the growing tip, while a 
moderately stout root placed vertically may exert a pressure 



36 TEACHEK'S HANDBOOK 

of many pounds on the earth or other medium through which 
it penetrates. See Darwin's Power of Movement in Plants, 
London, 1880, pp. 73, 74. 

Experiment XX. — It is evident that the slowly revolving 
clinostat merely removes the plant from the action of gravity, 
and that under those circumstances the roots will receive no 
direction from any external force, but grow on in whatever 
direction they take at the outset. Those shown on the rapidly 
revolving cylinder in Fig. 27 point outward from the axis of 
rotation under the influence of the centrifugal tendency caused 
by the rapid whirling motion. See Vines' Students' Text-Book 
of Botany, pp. 752-754. 

Experiment XXI. — If the use of the spectroscope (prefer- 
ably one of the direct vision, portable spectroscopes) can be 
had, this experiment may be performed very satisfactorily by 
watering the roots of thrifty young potted plants, for example, 
sunflowers, with a solution of lithium nitrate. 1 The concen- 
tration of the solution should be about 2 per cent. A few 
preliminary experiments should be made to get an idea how 
long it takes for the rise of the water containing lithium to 
reach the lower part of the stem, and then the subsequent 
rise may be tested by examining short portions cut from 
various regions of the stem and comparing them with simi- 
larly placed sections of other stems exposed for a little longer 
time to the action of the solution. The presence of the 
lithium salt may be detected by the characteristic lines as 
seen in the spectrum. The greatest pains must be taken not 
to introduce the lithium compound by accident, e.g., from a 
soiled scalpel. 

Experiment XXII. — This experiment is exceedingly rough, 
and merely serves to give a general idea of the time required 
for the rise of water in the kind of stem under observation, 

1 See Detmer's Practical Plant Physiology, _ translated by S. A. Moor, 
pp. 233, 234, London, 1898. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 37 

and to show that the wilting is due wholly to the loss 
of water. 

Experiment XXIII. — Other fleshy parts of plants covered 
with a layer of cork, as, for example, parsnip roots, carrots, 
turnips, etc., may be tested side by side with the potatoes, as 
indicated in the text. 

Experiment XXIV. — This experiment may be made with 
less trouble by heating the water from the boiled onion with 
an alkaline solution of copper. This solution is made by dis- 
solving copper sulphate in boiling hot potassium hydrate 
solution. 

Experiment XXV. — The onion should yield a decided pro- 
teid reaction, much intensified by the treatment with ammonia. 

Experiment XXVI. — The results of this experiment are 
a little uncertain. Not infrequently reasonable success is 
obtained in inducing the leaves to assume the nocturnal 
position in artificial darkness. 

Experiment XXVII. — If the shoots of ivy are growing 
freely, it will be found that some of them will point squarely 
away from the principal source of light, showing strong 
negative heliotropism. The leaves show equally strong posi- 
tive heliotropism. 

Experiment XXVIII. — In the hydrangea three very well 
defined leaf-traces occur, and their position is marked by 
extremely distinct red dots on the scar formed by tearing 
off the leaf -stalk. Almost any freely transpiring leaf will 
answer for this experiment, and it may be worth while to 
study, in this rough fashion, the approximate arrangement 
of the leaf-traces in several plants. 

Experiment XXIX. — The experiment is too simple to 
require comment. 

Experiment XXX. — Other plants than those suggested 
may be employed in this experiment, but the ones named will 
be found particularly instructive in their behavior. It would 



38 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

be well worth while to add a prickly pear cactus (Opuntia) 
to the list of plants examined in this manner. The teacher 
must not assume that a thick and leathery leaf will neces- 
sarily transpire slowly. For example, the common olean- 
der is found to have a decidedly rapid rate of transpiration. 
A large amount of time may profitably be spent in discuss- 
ing the results of this experiment, which may be protracted 
for weeks. The pupil may be able to discover for himself that 
transpiration almost ceases in the Ficus leaf unless exposed 
to sunlight. The attempt should be made not only to dis- 
cover what is the relative amount of transpiration per unit 
of area for the two plants under normal circumstances, but 
what it is under all sorts of abnormal conditions. The 
student will be especially interested to see how nearly zero 
the transpiration becomes when the plant is exposed to a 
cold or nearly saturated atmosphere. 

Experiment XXXI. — The leaf covered with vaseline on the 
upper surface should dry up almost as rapidly as an unpro- 
tected leaf, while the one with vaseline on the lower surface 
may remain green for months. 

Experiment XXXII. — This experiment is far from being an 
exact one and is meant merely to give a general idea of the 
comparative behavior of xerophytic plants when put under 
similar circumstances with plants with ordinary powers of 
transpiration. The teacher should use his own judgment in 
selecting any species which seem convenient for a comparative 
experiment. 

Experiment XXXIII. — The leaves should be watched con- 
tinuously, and it may be found worth while to record the 
progressive rise of the eosin solution by means of a series 
of rapid sketches at designated intervals of time. Toward 
the last the experiment will be somewhat unsatisfactory from 
the fact that the poisoning action of the solution causes the 
leaves to droop and become flaccid. It may be found desirable 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 39 

to investigate the rate of movement of liquid in a considerable 
variety of leaves, taking some of comparatively firm structure 
and relatively low rate of transpiration like the English ivy 
and others from aquatic or marsh plants, like the Richardia 
"calla." 

Experiment XXXIV. — It is hardly worth while to try to 
collect enough oxygen to establish the nature of the gas absorp- 
tion, but the manufacture of minute but abundant bubbles 
is easily secured, if any of the plants suggested are employed 
and they are in vigorous condition. See to it that the 
pupil does not mistake air-bubbles set free from the water on 
warming for oxygen bubbles. The latter arise only from the 
surfaces of the plant and at pretty regular intervals. If con- 
venient, not only the lower limit for oxygen-making should 
be ascertained, but (by gradual introduction first of warm 
and then of hot water) the upper limit as well. 

Experiment XXXV. — The veins of the leaf will be found 
comparatively free from starch, while the intermediate por- 
tions should show starch in abundance. 

Experiment XXXVI. — The covered regions are usually 
wholly free from blue coloration, owing to the fact that the 
solution of starch and its transportation to remoter portions 
of the plant (which goes on in all parts of the leaf where 
starch is made) is in the covered places not counterbalanced 
by the manufacture of new starch to make good the loss. 

Experiment XXXVTI. — As may be gathered from the text, 
leaves of late autumn should be found nearly or quite free 
from starch. 

Experiment XXXVIII. — No particular difficulty is usually 
encountered in obtaining pollen tubes from the kinds of 
pollen suggested ; as it is sometimes convenient to have the 
tubes ready to demonstrate without delay, it is well to have 
a set of mounted slides in which well-developed tubes are 
shown. The most striking pollen tubes obtainable are those 



40 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

of the Asclepias, which retain their distinctness of outline 
indefinitely when mounted in glycerine jelly. 

Experiment XXXIX Yeast grows with the utmost readi- 
ness in the molasses and water mixture recommended in the 
text. It may be found that in a mixture of sugar and dis- 
tilled water the growth at first is not much less rapid, but 
that it is somewhat less permanent. Properly distilled water 
alone should show no growth whatever. 

In the student's experiment on the temperature conditions 
under which yeast will grow (Sect. 320), he will usually 
have no difficulty in deciding that a freezing temperature 
reduces growth to a standstill; but he may be misled in 
regard to the effect of exposure to a boiling temperature by 
the fact that the gas bubbles in the liquid are expanded and 
rise rapidly for a time. He should be cautioned to note what 
occurs after this temporary rise of gas has taken place. On 
account of the readiness with which growth is manifested by 
the evolution of gas bubbles, the sensitiveness of the yeast to 
various toxic substances is more readily tested than that of 
most low forms of plant life, and the effect of various sub- 
stances, such as nitric and chromic acid, copper sulphate and 
sulphuric acid in solutions of known strength, might be given 
to selected students as a subject for investigation. 

CONDUCTING FIELD WORK 

In very many high schools field work for entire classes is 
out of the question. Where it cannot be made to succeed 
with the entire number of pupils who study botany, even 
when taken out in small sections, it may be feasible for vol- 
unteer divisions of those who are really interested in the sub- 
ject. The only way to become well acquainted with even 
the familiar plants of a region is to spend weeks — or, bet- 
ter, months — in the field, studying the flora in its natural 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 41 

environment. Indoor laboratory work at determination of 
species is desirable as a preparation for the offhand identifica- 
tion of plants, but the latter process is a necessary sequel to the 
former one, and of far more value to the human being as such 
than any amount of plant analysis. A little direction suffices 
to lead the beginner in out-of-door botany to look for the 
salient characteristics of plants, to pick out Labiatce by their 
square stems and opposite leaves, and (usually) by their odor 
to recognize the dotted leaves of Hypericaceve, the character- 
istic foliage, inflorescence, and fruit of Umbelliferce, and so on. 
The function of the teacher will be mainly to guide the obser- 
vations of his class into useful channels, to see that they do 
not spend too much time on the esthetics of the plants which 
they encounter, but rather learn to know the plants well and 
to think of them as more or less thoroughly equipped organ- 
isms with a living to make. The best teacher in charge of a 
botany class out of doors is the one who answers most ques- 
tions by counter-questions and so gradually leads the pupil to 
coax the plant's story from the plant itself. A general quiz 
on the names of the species in sight from a given point and 
the reasons for their coexistence there is eminently useful. 
Collecting is a matter of minor importance and mainly of 
service in replenishing the botanical museum and herbarium. 

Ecology, as above suggested, is one of the principal sub- 
jects to be dealt with on botanical excursions. It can only 
be made valuable by unifying each field lesson as far as may 
be. The following are but a few of the many topics that 
might be profitably investigated by pupils who have easy 
access to considerable areas of land and water which are 
under fairly natural conditions : 

Stems : erect, reclining, climbing, prostrate ; effect of shade 
on development of branches ; repair of injuries ; rate of 
growth per year ; correlation of stoutness of twigs with size 
of leaves ; winter buds. 



42 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

Leaves : arrangements for exposure to light ; shade-plants 
and sun-plants ; variations of leaves on a single tree due to 
differences of illumination ; exposure to air (free or dissolved 
in water) of leaves of aquatic species. 

Flowers : study and collection of all insect visitors to one 
or more species ; wind-pollination at work. 

Fruits and seeds : modes of dispersal as seen in operation ; 
evidences of successful dispersal in previous seasons ; study 
of newly exposed tracts of earth. 

Plant-societies : hydrophyte, xerophyte, and mesophyte soci- 
eties living under natural conditions ; sketch-maps of ponds, 
or small streams and their banks, of sandy knolls and a little 
of the more fertile land about them, showing the various 
zones of vegetation present ; cryptogamic vegetation on a dry 
rock, on a tree-trunk, in a brook-bed; weed societies of the 
dooryard, the barnyard, the pasture, the wheat fields, the 
fence-row. 

The teacher may find it of advantage, in endeavoring to 
give an idea of the physiognomy of some of the principal 
plant-societies, to make free use of large photographs. Many 
excellent photographs for this purpose are to be found in 
Peabody's Western Series and White's Western Series, listed 
in the Catalogue of American Scenery and Architecture, pub- 
lished by the Soule Photograph Company, 338 Washington 
Street, Boston, Mass. 

NOTES ON SPECIAL SECTIONS 

Sect. 2. Examination of the Squash Seed. The pupil may 
be told that the micropyle represents the opening through 
which the unformed seed, at the outset, received the minute 
portion of living matter necessary to set it to growing (Sects. 
226, 227). When he comes to the study of fertilization, in 
Chapter XVI, he may be referred back to Sect. 2. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 43 

Sect. 24. Plant-Cells. What is here stated about the pro- 
portion of protoplasm found in living and growing cells is 
particularly true of the cells of meristem or formative tissue. 

Sect. 66. Root-Pressure. For the measurement of pressures 
of more than a quarter of an atmosphere, it will probably be 
found more convenient to use a closed pressure-gauge, as recom- 
mended in Ganong's Teaching Botanist. The Macmillan 
Company, K Y., 1899, p. 232. 

Sect. 106. Tissues. 

The following are the most important kinds of tissues found 
in seed-plants : 

1. Formative tissue or meristem. 

2. Parenchyma. 

3. Collenchyma. 

4. Sclerenchyma (including hard bast). 

5. Fibrous tissue (of wood fibers). 

6. Sieve tissue. 

7. Milk tissue, composed of branching tubes which contain 
milky juice. 

8. Tracheal tissue, composed of tracheids or closed cells, 
the walls of which have some kind of secondary thickening, 
e.g., spiral vessels and the pitted cells of coniferous wood. 

Sect. 109. Grafting. The two trunks above the fork in 
Fig. 70 seem to be united into one. They are covered by 
a hollow cylinder of bark common to both, but the annual 
rings of each of the two component trunks could probably be 
made out on a section taken above the point of union, and 
each would for some distance retain its own pith. 

Sect. 117. Movement of Water in the Stem. See Pfeffer's 
Physiology of Plants, Chapter VI, Oxfofd, 1900. 

Sect. 142. The Maple Leaf. Any kind of maple will answer 
the purpose. Palmately veined leaves are less abundant 
among our forest trees than are pinnately veined ones. The 
sycamore is one of the commonest species. Among other 



44 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

plants may be suggested the ordinary " geraniums " (pelargo- 
niums), the pumpkin, squash, grape, currant, and hollyhock. 

Sect. 164. Leaf of u India- Rubber Plant." The spongy 
parenchyma is not as closely packed as would appear from 
Fig. 119. There are many air-spaces between the cells. 

Sect. 170. Operation of the Stomata. It is not certain that 
the hairs about the mouth of the oleander stoma are solely to 
keep out dust, but this is a highly probable function. They 
cannot greatly check transpiration, since this process goes on 
very freely in the oleander. 

Sects. 174, 175. The author has used the terms potash and 
silica in preference to potassium oxide and silicon dioxide 
for the sake of simplicity. For pupils who have learned some 
chemistry before botany is completed it will of course be 
desirable to introduce a good many chemical terms and 
formulae not here employed. 

Sect. 178. On the temperature required for photosynthesis, 
see Pfeffer (work cited above), pp. 337, 338. 

Pfeffer gives as the approximate equation for photosyn- 
tnpsm * 

6 C0 2 + 6 H 2 - 6 2 + 6 H 12 6 (glucose). 

Sect. 185. Excretion of Water and Respiration. The pupil's 
attention should be called to the fact that respiration in plants 
is due wholly to diffusion of gases ; that plants cannot forcibly 
inspire and expire air, since they have no mechanism for pro- 
ducing air currents. 

Sects. 191-195. Protoplasm and its Properties. If the 
teacher prefers to complete the study of the structure and 
functions of flowering plants before taking up lower forms, 
he may omit this chapter until after the flower and the fruit 
have been studied. It seems better to the author, however, 
to introduce the morphology and physiology of cells as indi- 
viduals pretty early, and there are many reasons for taking 
up these topics immediately after Chapter III. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 45 

Sect. 194. Nature and Occurrence of Irritability in Plants. 
In discussing geotropisni the teacher should strongly emphasize 
the fact that the unequal growth of roots and shoots due to 
the action of gravitation is a highly complex affair and that all 
that the beginner is concerned with is the result. Gravity 
acts and the plant is directed, but the internal changes in 
the plant, due to the stimulus received from gravity, are not 
explicable in everyday language. 

Sect. 205. Study of Typical Flowers. Teachers in localities 
where the flowers mentioned in the text are not obtainable 
should, of course, substitute the most available material at 
hand ; e.g., on the Pacific Coast Erythronium for Trillium, and 
Calochortus or Fritillaria, for the expensive tulip. 

Sect. 370. The Law of Biogenesis. It is impossible to put 
any useful statement of this law into a few lines unless the 
reader has some knowledge of the amount and kind of 
evidence on which it is based. Some of the earliest books 
on the subject are still the best. The teacher should read 
Haeckel's History of Creation, N. Y., Appleton, Fourth Edition, 
1899, Vol. I, Chapter XV, and Darwin's Origin of Species, 
Chapter XIV. 

Sect. 408. Enslaved Plants. On the assimilation of free 
nitrogen by root-tubercles, see Pfeffer (work cited above), 
pp. 396-403. 

Sect. 409. Messmates. On mykorhizas, see Pfeffer (work 
cited above), pp. 371-373. 



EEFERENCE BOOKS 1 

Not nearly all of the books which the author regards as 
useful guides for high school teachers for study and research in 
the commonly taught departments of botany are here named. 
Both pupil and teacher will find it desirable to consult some 
of them frequently throughout the whole course of the botani- 
cal work. The starred titles (**) indicate books which will 
aid the teacher, but which the ordinary high-school pupil 
could hardly use. Where it is possible to discriminate, the 
best book, that is, the book which combines accuracy, full- 
ness, newness, and simplicity of statement to the highest 
degree, is placed first in its own list. 

Most teachers will find a good general glossary of much 
service in reading botanical works. The most recent is 
Jackson's Glossary of Botanic Terms, London, 1900. $2.00. 
(Imported by the J. B. Lippincott Company.) 

General Works 

Kerner and Oliver, Natural History of Plants. Blackie & Son, 
London, 1895. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1895. 
4 vols. $15.00. 

Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper, A Text-Book of 
Botany. Translated by Porter. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, New York, 1898. $4.50. 

Vines, A Students' Text-Book of Botany. The Macmillan 
Company, New York, 1894. $3.75 net. 

1 The author has been much aided in the preparation of this list by the one 
contained in Ganong's Teaching Botanist. 

46 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 47 

Barnes, Plant Life. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1898. 

$1.12. 
Bessey, Botany for High Schools and Colleges. Henry Holt 

& Co., New York, 1885, and later editions. $2.20. 
Also Bessey' s Essentials of Botany, seventh, edition. 

The Kerner and Oliver is a costly book, but is almost 
indispensable, since it goes over the greater part of the field 
of botany in a full and accurate yet thoroughly simple and 
interesting way. The only criticism that can be urged against 
it is on the score of occasional fanciful statements in regard 
to theories as yet unproved. The work of Strasburger and 
others is perhaps the best recent summary of botany in a 
moderate-sized octavo volume. All the books above cited 
are profusely illustrated. 

Laboratory Manuals 

Detmer, Practical Plant Physiology. Translated by Moor. 

The Macmillan Company, New York, 1898. $3.00. 
Darwin and Acton, Practical Physiology of Plants. Second 

Edition. Cambridge, 1897. 4s. 6d. 
MacDougal, Experimental Plant Physiology. Henry Holt 

& Co., New York, 1895. $1.00. 
Strasburger, Practical Botany. Translated by Hillhouse. 

The Macmillan Company, New York, 1900. $2.60 ; or, 

better, Botanische Practicum. Fischer, Jena, 1897. 

22.50 marks. 
Spalding, Introduction to Botany. T>. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 

1895. 90 cents. 
Bailey, Lessons with Plants. The Macmillan Company, New 

York, 1898. $1.10. 
Clements and Cutter, Laboratory Manual of High School 

Botany. The University Publishing Company, Lincoln, 

Neb., 1900. 75 cents. 



48 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

Huxley and Martin, Elementary Biology (extended by Hoves 

and Scott). The Macmillan Company, New York, 1892. 

$2.60. 
Clark, Practical Methods in Microscopy. Third Edition. D. C. 

Heath & Co., Boston, 1896. $1.60. 
Ganong, The Teaching Botanist. The Macmillan Company, 

New York, 1899. $1.10. 
Newell, Outlines of Lessons in Botany. Part I and Part II, 

2 vols. Ginn & Company, Boston, 1892. 90 cents each. 

The first three of the books above mentioned are devoted to 
experiments in vegetable physiology. Detmer's is the best. 
Strasburger's book is devoted to vegetable histology and is 
excellent, though the translation by Hillhouse is less satis- 
factory than the Botanische Practicum. Spalding's Introduc- 
tion is not wholly a laboratory manual, though largely so. It 
supplies admirable directions for getting acquainted with plant 
life and structure at first hand. Huxley's Biology is partly 
devoted to animals, partly to plants. It gives excellent direc- 
tions for the laboratory study of some of the lower forms of 
plant life. Ganong's book is indispensable for all but the 
most experienced teachers. 

Structural and Physiological 

Pfeffer, The Physiology of Plants. Translated by Ewart. 

Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1900. $7.00. 
Sachs, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants. Clarendon 

Press, Oxford, 1887. (Out of print.) 
Gray, Structural Botany. American Book Company, New 

York, 1880. $2.00. 
De Bary, Comparative Anatomy of the Phanerogams and 

Ferns.** Translated by Bower and Scott. Clarendon 

Press, Oxford, 1884. $5.50. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 49 

Haberlandt, Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie.** Engelmann, 
Leipzig, 1896. 18 marks. 

Gray's Structural Botany is written in an exceedingly clear 
and readable style. It is not brought down to date, and it 
gives little histology ; it is well supplemented by De Bary's 
work, and these two books, with the masterly lectures by 
Sachs, furnish a very full account of vegetable structure and 
life. Vines, Physiology of Plants, University Press, Cam- 
bridge, 1886, is more to be depended on in its chemical state- 
ments than the work of Sachs. Pfeffer's work is authoritative 
on the subjects of assimilation and metabolism and supersedes 
all preceding treatises on those topics. 

Morphological 

Goebel, Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of 
Plants** Translated by Garnsey and Balfour. Claren- 
don Press, Oxford, 1887. $5.25. 

Pax, Morphologie der Pflanzen** Enke, Stuttgart, 1890. 

Systematic 

Warming and Potter, Handbook of Systematic Botany,** The 
Macmillan Company, Kew York, 1895. $3.75. - 

Engler and Prantl, Die Natilrlichen Pflanzenfamilien** 
Engelmann, Leipzig. 

Engler, Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien.** Borntraeger, Ber- 
lin, 1898. 

Le Maout and Decaisne, Traite General de Botanique. Fir- 
min Didot Ereres, Eils & Cie, Paris. 

Strasburger, Xoll, Schenk, and Schimper, Text-Book (see 
above). 

Campbell, Lectures on the Evolution of Plants, The Macmillan 
Company, New York, 1899. $1,25, 



50 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

Campbell, Structural and Systematic Botany, Ginn & Com- 
pany, Boston, 1890. 

The first-named book in the list is clear, ably written, and 
sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Engler and Prantl's work 
in several volumes is a very large and elaborate one, not yet 
completed, with a wealth of illustrations. Engler's little 
Syllabus forms the best inexpensive thoroughly modern sum- 
mary of systematic botany. Le Maout and Decaisne's treatise 
is not modern, but is abundantly illustrated and will be found 
useful. 

Cryptogamic Botany 

Bennett and Murray, Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. Long- 
mans, Green & Co., London and New York, 1889. $5.00. 

Eaton, Ferns of North America** Whidden, Boston, 1893. 
2 vols. $20.00 per volume. 

Underwood, Our Native Ferns and their Allies. Henry Holt 
& Co., New York, 1899. $1.00. 

Campbell, The Structure and Development of the Mosses and 
Ferns. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1895. 
$4.50. 

Macdonald, Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water. 
Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia, 1875. 

De Bary, Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, 
Mycetozoa, and Bacteria.** Clarendon Press, Oxford, 
1887. 

Goebel, Outlines of Classification, etc.** (See above.) 

Warming and Potter, Handbook, etc.* # (See above.) 

The number of monographs on special topics in crypto- 
gamic botany is too great to admit, in an elementary book, of 
even the mere mention of the most important titles. In the 
list above given ; the works of Bennett and Murray and of 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 51 

Goebel are the only general ones, and in the former mention 
is made of a good many of the best special treatises on cryp- 
togamic botany. 

Floras, etc. 

Gray, Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. New edition by 

L. H. Bailey. American Book Company, New York, 

1895. $1.44 
Gray, Manual of Botany. Sixth edition, revised. American 

Book Company, New York, 1890. $1.62. 
A new and greatly improved edition of the Manual is in 

course of preparation. 
Gray, Synoptical Flora of North America. American Book 

Company, New York. 
Britton and Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern United 

States, Canada, etc. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 

1896-98. 3 vols. $3.00 per volume. 
Chapman, Flora of the Southern United States. American 

Book Company, 1897. $3.60. 
Coulter, Manual of the Botany of the Rocky Mountain Region. 

American Book Company, New York, 1885. $1.62. 
Miller and Whiting, Wild Flowers of the Northeastern States. 

G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1895. (Fully illustrated.) $4.00. 
Sargent, The Silva of North America.** Houghton, Mifflin 

& Co., Boston, 1892-99. (In 12 vols., very fully illus- 
trated.) $25.00 a volume. 
Keeler, Our Native Trees. Charles Scribner's Sons, New 

York, 1900. (Fully illustrated.) $2.00. 

Ecology 

Kerner, Natural History of Plants. (See above.) 
Muller, The Fertilization of Flowers. Translated by Thomp- 
son. The Macmillan Company, London, 1893. 21s. 



52 TEACHEK'S HANDBOOK 

Darwin, Insectivorous Plants. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 

$2.00. 
Darwin, The Power of Movement in Plants. D. Appleton 

& Co., New York. $2.00. 
Geddes, Chapters in Modern Botany. Charles Scribner's 

Sons, New York, 1893. $1.25. 
Lubbock, Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves. Nature Series. The 

Macmillan Company, London, 1884. 4s. 6d. 
Wiesner, Biologie der Pflanzen.** Wien, 1889. 
Ludwig, Lehrbuch der Pflanzenbiologie.** Enke, Stuttgart, 

1895. Unbound, 14 marks. 
Weed, Ten New England Blossoms and their Insect Visitors. 

Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1895. 
Beal, Seed Dispersal. Gj-inn & Company, Boston, 1898. 
Coulter, Plant Relations. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 

1899. $1.10. 
Schimper, Pflanzengeographie,** etc. Fischer, Jena, 1899. 

Unbound, 27 marks. . 
Warming, Oekologische Pflanzengeo graphic** Translated 

into German by Knoblauch. Borntraeger, Berlin, 1896. 
. 8 marks. 
Pound and Clements. Phy to geography of Nebraska. Second 

edition. Botanical Seminar, Lincoln, Nebraska. 

Kerner and Oliver's Natural History of Plants contains 
the fullest account of ecology in English of any book yet 
published. The best three books in the list above given 
(irrespective of the language in which they are written) are 
those of Ludwig, Schimper, and Warming. Warming's work 
is possibly rather theoretical, but it is a most fascinating 
little treatise by the hand of a master. 

The work by Pound and Clements is the best account in 
book form of the phytogeography of any part of the United 
States. 



EXAMINATIONS 

The following examination papers may serve to suggest 
the lines along which examinations may profitably be set for 
pupils who are using the Foundations of Botany. The first 
two were given by Professor L. Murbach of the Detroit, 
Michigan, High School; the remaining ones are from the 
Boston English High School. 



1. Describe roots, stems, leaves. Give the functions of each. 

2. Give the history of each of the following plant structures, 
showing the relation they bear to each other : flower, fruit, seed, 
seedling, root, stem, leaf, bud. 

3. Xame five plant organs in which food may be stored, and tell 
in each case of what use the stored food is to the plant storing it. 

4. Explain in what ways plants and animals maybe of use to 
each other. 

5. Tell the sources of plant-food. Follow it from its entrance 
into the plant, through its preparation, to its final use or storage. 

6. Explain the principle underlying the modification of a plant 
organ. (Examples.) 

7. (a) What substance distinguishes the organic from the inor- 
ganic ? What are its characteristics ? (b) Xame the smallest divi- 
sions of it making up the plant. 

8. Draw ground plan of a dicotyledonous flower and explain 
number, form, arrangement, and insertion of parts. Do the same 
with a monocotyledonous flower. 

9. How do flowers produce seeds ? Explain all the steps and the 
agencies employed. 

10. Tell the most important fact you have learned from the 
chapter on " Struggle for Existence." 

53 



54 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

II 

EXAMINATION IN BOTANY 

December 6, 1900. (One-half Term) 

1. Explain the make-up of any flowering plant: (a) as to its 
substance and the divisions of this substance (units) ; (&) as to its 
organs. What is protoplasm? Where is it found? What can it 
do ? Of what importance is it ? Name the two groups of organs, 
indicating their functions with the name. 

2. Name the different kingdoms into which natural objects are 
divided. Discuss their relation to one another. Give examples. 

3. Discuss flowers under the following heads : (a) structure, 
(b) functions, (c) means and devices made use of in performing 
their functions, (d) final products, (e) origin of the flower, (/) types 
of flowers. 

4. Give your definition of a fruit. Of what use is it to the plant ? 
Name the kinds of fruits as to composition or texture. Explain 
how each kind does its work, giving details. When the fruit has 
no devices for scattering the seeds how is this accomplished? 

5. Give two points about the leaf, showing its fitness for its work. 
What are the three chief uses of the leaf? Explain how it per- 
forms each of these and illustrate with experiments. 

Supplementary Questions 

Discuss (a) plant-societies; (b) relations between plants and 
animals. 

Ill 

January 24, 1899 

Take questions 1, 2, 3, 4, and three others. 

1. State where you would find the cotyledons of three of the 
following plants three weeks after germination began, and tell what 
work the cotyledons of each plant have been doing, and what changes 
they have undergone in the mean time : bean, pea, squash, corn. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 55 

2. Trace the course of water from the soil to the extremities of 
the leaves of a dicotyledonous plant ; explain how you would find 
out how fast it rises. 

3. Name the layers from the center to the outside of a dicotyledo- 
nous tree. Tell what purpose each layer serves. 

4. "What are the principal uses of leaves ? Sketch a cross-section 
of a leaf and label its parts ; explain how each part helps in the 
work of the leaf. 

5. Explain, as far as you can, the peculiar forms and uses of the 
roots of these plants : dahlia or sweet potato, ivy, duckweed, dodder, 
tropical air-plants. 

6. Write fully upon how plants adapt themselves to different 
climates, etc., by leaves of various sizes, shapes, and covering. 

7. Describe three ways in which plants catch insects. What 
becomes of the insects thus caught ? 

8. Describe each of the following plants or parts of plants ; tell 
whether it is root, stem, bud, or other part of the plant, and tell 
how it comes to have the shape and structure that it does have : an 
onion, a potato, a melon cactus, a cabbage, a sweet potato. 

9. (a) Why is some pollen dry and some sticky ? (b) Why do 
not the anthers generally lie closely around the stigma? (c) Why 
are so many night-blooming flowers sweet-scented? (d) Explain 
some of the things that adapted one of the flowers that you have 
studied to be cross-pollinated. 

IV 

June, 1899 

Take any six questions. 

1. Write as fully as possible on plant-food found in seeds : 
(a) kinds ; (b) mode of detecting each ; (c) how distributed in the 
seed ; (d) proof of usefulness to seedling ; (e) proofs of disappear- 
ance from seed after germination. 

2. Describe some of the main things necessary to fit a plant : 
(a) for desert life ; (b) for life in the arctic regions ; (c) for life on a 
lawn ; (d) for life in a dense forest. 



56 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

3. The yeast plant. 

4. Compare two of the flowers that you have studied, so as to 
show which is best adapted for visits from selected insects. 

5. Explain carefully the process of producing seeds, from the 
time the flower opens. 

6. What is a fruit ? Show how five very different kinds secure 
dispersal of seeds. Show how two kinds of plants protect their 
ripening seeds. 

7. Explain in detail the process by which an ordinary plant takes, 
digests, and uses its food. 

8. (a) How are plants concerned in the production of these 
articles: hemp, alcohol, flour, sugar, cotton? (b) In what other 
ways do plants make themselves useful to man ? 

9. Describe the development of a branch, beginning with the 
unopened bud. ■ ' r 

10. Describe the growth of one of the following seedlings from 
germination till the seedling has its first regular leaf: bean, pea, 
squash. 

V 

January, 1900 

Take any six questions. 

1. Describe fully an experiment that illustrates osmosis. What 
has osmosis to do with plant life? 

2. Name the chief uses of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, thorns, 
hairs. 

3. Starch : where it is made, from what, by what, under what 
circumstances. 

4. Where would the following be found and of what use are 
they? — epidermis, cork, wood cells, ducts, stomata, chlorophyll 
grains, lenticels ? 

5. Describe the structure of a flower that you have studied. 
Sketch its essential organs and label their parts. 

6. Give the life history of a grain of pollen, telling where it is 
formed, how it is carried to its destination, what becomes of it 
there, what its use is, and how it accomplishes this. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 57 

7. Sketch a cross-section of a stem of a dicotyledonous plant and 
label each layer. 

8. Compare the method of life of a mushroom or toadstool with 
that of an ordinary plant. 

9. Describe some of the movements of roots, stems, and leaves, 
explaining the usefulness of each kind of movement. 



LIST OF SLIDES 1 
I. Phanerogams 

1. Starch in cotyledon of bean. 

2. Same three weeks after germination. 

3. Chinese lily root, longitudinal section. 

4. Corn stem, transverse section. 

5. Same,, longitudinal section. 

6. Macerated bast and wood fibers. 

7. Ricinus stem, longitudinal section (spiral vessels). 

8. Pteris rootstock, longitudinal section (scalariform ves- 
sels, wood fibers). 

9. Cork, epidermis of ailanthus stem. 

10. Squash or cucumber stem, longitudinal section (sieve 
tubes). 

11. Clematis stem one year old, transverse and longitudinal 
section. 

12. Golden-rod stem, transverse section. 

13. Sycamore stem one year old, transverse section and 
longitudinal radial section. 

14. Sycamore stem three to five years old, transverse section. 

15. Sycamore wood, transverse section and two kinds of 
longitudinal section. 

16. 2 Ash twig or beech twig, transverse section in early 
winter condition (starch). 

17. Leaf of English ivy, transverse section. 

1 These slides will be furnished by Miss E. M. Drury, 45 Munroe Street, 
Roxbury, Mass., directly to teachers or schools and not through dealers. The 
price for Set I is $5.00 and for Set II $7.00 net, with 25 cents additional for 
each set if sent by mail. 

2 Also fifty sections in alcohol for use with iodine solution. 

58 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 59 

18. Leaf of lily, upper and lower epidermis. 

19. Leaf of Ficas elastica, transverse section and lower 
epidermis. 

20. Pollen tubes. 

II. Cryptogams 

1. Bacteria, stained. 

2. Spirogyra, conjugating. 

3. Vaucheria, fruiting. 

4. Nitella, fruiting. 

5. Fucus, antheridial conceptacles. 

6. Fucus, oogonial conceptacles. 

7. Nemalion, fruiting tips. 

8. Fuccinia, cluster cups on barberry leaves, section. 

9. Fuccinia, wheat rust spores. 

10. Mushroom (Agaricus), section through gills. 

11. Lichen (Fhyscia), section through thallus. 

12. Marchantia, section through male receptacle. 

13. Marchantia, vertical section through an air-chamber of 
thallus. 

14. Moss (Funaria), antheridium. 

15. Moss, longitudinal section through tip of a fertile plant. 

16. Moss, section through spore-capsule, showing spores in 
place. 

17. Fern spore, germinating. 

18. Fern prothallium, with young plant. 

19. Equisetum, cross-section of stem. 

20. Equisetum, epidermis macerated to show stomata. 

Extra Slides, 50 cents each 
Physcia, section through apothecium. Prothallium of fern, section 
showing antheridia. Same, showing archegonia. Ovary of Pyrola, sec- 
tion showing egg apparatus. Ovules of Capsella, showing development of 
embryo. Twig of Euonymus alatus, cross-section of twig, showing cuticle 
and cork. 

Other extra slides will be furnished to order as desired; 
prices given on application. 



60 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

BOTANICAL PHOTOMICBOGKAPHS 1 

The following subjects are ready ; others are in preparation. 

Stem sections. 

~No. 1. Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) : complete trans- 
verse section X about 135. 

No. 2. Sassafras officinale (Sassafras) : complete trans- 
verse section X about 140. 

Nos. 1 and 2 show clearly in transverse section all the elements of 
a woody "exogenous" stem at the close of its first year of growth. 
No. 1 is particularly good for showing the elements of the woody 
layer, the bast cells, wood cells, ducts, medullary rays, etc. , stand- 
ing out with great distinctness. 

1 By Samuel F. Tower, Instructor in Botany in the Boston English High 
School. Printed on heavy "Bromide" paper about 16 X 20 inches. Prices: 
unmounted, $2.50 each ; mounted on heavy cardboard, $2.75 each ; sent 
postage free if unmounted, or by express at purchaser's expense if mounted. 
Photographs of this series can be ordered from the publishers. 

This is a series of photographs of plant sections printed from the original 
negatives by the "Bromide Enlargement" process. The negatives have not 
been retouched in any particular, so that the prints are in no sense diagrams, 
but are exact representations of what existed in the plants. The magnification 
is sufficient to make all the more obvious points of structure and, in many 
cases, fine details visible across an ordinary recitation or lecture room. The 
advantage of photographs over such diagrammatic and conventionalized 
illustrations as are given in many of the best text-books will be appreciated 
by every teacher of science. The photographs will be found useful for illus- 
trating lectures or class-room talks, or as a basis for review quizzes ; they can 
be used to advantage in the laboratory either to show the young student 
what to look for in his work with the microscope or to correct his faults of 
observation after he has sketched the original section ; while for giving 
the sense of proportion and relation that is always wanting in the work of 
young students they are invaluable. The sections have been chosen with 
care, so that teachers can get for their classes fresh material like that 
represented in the photographs. It will be recognized at once that no 
method of commendation or criticism could be more effective than to 
confront the student with a photograph of the material which he has just 
sketched. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 61 

No. 3. Zea Jlays (corn) : transverse section of part of stem 
X over 400 ; shows a field large enough to give the arrange- 
ment of fibrovascular bundles in the monocotyledonous stem, 
and is magnified sufficiently to show the structure of the 
individual bundles. 

No. 4. Zea Mays : longitudinal section of small part of 
stem X about 350 ; shows two fibrovascular bundles with the 
adjacent parenchyma tissue. The annular ducts in the bun- 
dles show particularly well. 

Nos. 3 and 4 studied together will give a clear idea of the most 
important points in the structure of the monocotyledonous stem. 

No. 5. Smilax rotundifolia (Cat-brier) : complete transverse 
section X about 145 ; shows the structure of the individual 
bundles and their arrangement in the stem, the thickened 
walls of the fundamental tissue and the stomata in the epi- 
dermis with the thin-walled cells immediately underlying 
them. 

An instructive comparison may be made of No. 3 and No. 5, an 
herbaceous and a woody stem, both monocotyledonous. It will be 
profitable also to study No. 5 in connection with No. 1, a monocoty- 
ledonous and a dicotyledonous stem, both woody. 

No. 6. Thrinax sp. or Sabal sp. (?) : transverse section of 
part of petiole X about 170. This is a section of a bit of the 
handle of a " palm-leaf " fan and shows fibrovascular bundles 
and surrounding tissue of a somewhat different type from the 
two foregoing ; an exceptionally clear photograph. 

Root sections. 

No. 7. Primus serotina (Wild Cherry) : complete trans- 
verse section X about 85 ; shows clearly all the elements of 
a woody " exogenous " root. 

A comparison of No. 1 and No. 7 will be found a very instructive 
class exercise. 



62 TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

No. 8. Narcissus Tazetta, var. Orientalis (Chinese Lily) : 
longitudinal section of root tip X somewhat over 400 ; shows 
the cells of the rootcap, the point of growth, and the incip- 
ient corky layer and central cylinder. 

Leaf sections. 

No. 9. Hydrangea Hortensia (Hydrangea) : transverse sec- 
tion X about 600 ; shows the upper epidermis, the palisade 
parenchyma, the loose parenchyma, and the lower epidermis. 
A small vein is also seen in cross-section. 

No. 10. Ficus elastica (Rubber Plant) : transverse section 
X about 650 ; shows the same elements as No. 9, and also 
several stomata, in section, in the lower epidermis. 

A comparison of No. 9 and No. 10 will be found very advantageous 
in connection with transpiration experiments on the Ficus and the 
Hydrangea. (See Bergen's Foundations of Botany, pp. 159-162.) 

No. 11. Rhododendron sp. : transverse section X about 
1000 ; shows the same elements as the two foregoing and is 
in character intermediate between them. The differentiation 
between the palisade parenchyma and the loose parenchyma 
is particularly good. 

No. 12. Epidermis of leaf of Cyclamen sp. X about 780. 
This photograph represents % square millimeter of epidermis, 
and shows the typical epidermal cells of a netted-veined leaf 
and the form, number, and arrangement of the stomata. 
Many cells show nuclei clearly. 

As this view shows a definite portion (£ sq. mm.) of epidermis, the 
student can easily compute the number on a given leaf of the same 
sort and thus get a good idea of the immense number of stomata 
even on a leaf that is relatively poorly supplied with them. 

Sections showing ducts. 

No. 13. Ricinus communis (Castor-oil Plant) : longitudinal 
section of petiole X about 360 ; shows a group of spiral ducts 
with the adjacent parenchyma tissue. 



FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY 63 

No. 14. Pteris aquillna (Common Brake) : longitudinal sec- 
tion of rootstock X about 300 ; shows two groups of scalari- 
form ducts and, less distinctly, other parts of the bundles in 
which they occur with the adjacent parenchyma tissue. 

See also No. 4 for annular ducts. 

Wood sections. 

No. 15. Sassafras officinale (Sassafras) : transverse sec- 
tion X about 300 ; shows three annual layers of wood with 
their ducts, wood cells, medullary rays, etc. 

No. 16. Kadial section of same wood with like magnifica- 
tion ; shows clearly most of the elements of which this wood 
is composed. Through the middle of the picture runs a 
duct with its wall nearly intact partially overlaid by the 
cells of a medullary ray. On the extreme right and left 
are the remains of other ducts whose walls were torn in cut- 
ting. Wood cells, wood parenchyma, and medullary ray 
cells show very clearly. The picture includes two annual 
layers. 

No. 17. Tangential section of same wood with like magni- 
fication ; shows in tangential section the same elements as 
are shown in Nos. 15 and 16. 

No. 18. Pinus Strobus (White Pine) : transverse section 
X about 300 ; shows one annual layer of wood with its wood 
cells, medullary rays, and one resin passage, whose walls are 
somewhat crumpled. 

No. 19. Tangential section of same wood with like magni- 
fication ; shows medullary rays and wood cells. In many 
places the " pits " in the walls of tracheids show more or less 
clearly in section. 

No. 20. Eadial section of same wood X about 900 ; shows 
the same elements as appear in No. 19. The tracheids are 
relatively too short to be typical of the wood of Pinus Stro- 
bus (compare No. 19) ; but the section. was chosen particularly 



64 - TEACHER'S HANDBOOK 

to show the discoid pits, which appear in great number and 
with remarkable distinctness. 

Note. — For the benefit of those teachers who live at too great a distance 
to make their selections by personal examination and who have not sufficient 
laboratory funds at their command to purchase the whole set at once, it may 
not be out of place to say that, if the author could have only one of the fifty 
or more that he uses in his own teaching, he would choose No. 1. As the five 
which, if any, are more useful than the others, he would recommend Nos. 1, 3 
or 5, 7, 8, and 9; and as the second five, Nos. 15, 16, 17, 13, and 10. The order 
would, however, depend greatly on the particular points that the individual 
teacher emphasizes in his teaching. 

A large variety of photomicrographs can also be had of W. 
H. Walmsley, 4248 Pine Street, Philadelphia. Mr. Walmsley 
can furnish moderately amplified bromide enlargements of 
these if desired. 







I 

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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